Classes

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is one of the most effective approaches to writing software. In OOP you write classes that represent real-world things and situations, and you create objects based on these classes. When you write a class, you define the general behavior that a whole category of objects can have. When you create individual objects from the class, each object is automatically equipped with the genearl behavior; you can then give each object whatever unique traits you desire. You'll be amazed how well real-world situations can be modeled with object-oriented programming.

Making an object from a class is called instantiation, and you work with instances of a class. On this page, we'll write classes and create instances of those classes. We will specify the kind of information that will be stored in instances, and we'll define actions that can be taken with these instances. We'll also write classes that extend the functionality of existing classes, so similar classes can share code efficiently. We'll store our classes in modules and import classes written by other programmers into our program files.

Understanding object-oriented programming will help us see the world as a programmer does. It'll help us really know our code, not just what's happening line by line, but also the bigger picture behind it. Knowing the logic behind classes will train us to think logically so we can write programs that effectively address almost any problem we encounter.

Creating and Using a Class

You can model almost anything using classes. Let's start by writing a simple class, Dog, that represents a dog - not one dog in particular, but any dog. What do we know about pet dogs? Well, they all have a name and age. We also know that most dogs sit and roll over. Those two pieces of information (name and age) and those two behaviors (sit and roll over) will go in our Dog class because they're common to most dogs. This class will tell Python how to make an object representing a dog. After our class is written, we'll use it to make individual instances, each of which represent one specific dog.

Creating the Dog Class

Each instance created from the Dog class will store a name and an age, and we'll give each dog the ability to sit() and roll_over():

class Dog:
    """A simple attempt to model a dog."""

    def __init__(self, name, age):
        """Initialized name and age attributes."""
        self.name = name
        self.age = age

    def sit(self):
        """Simulate a dog sitting in response to a command."""
        print(f"{self.name} is now sitting.")

    def roll_over(self):
        """Simulate rolling over in response to a command."""
        print(f"{self.name} rolled over!")

There's a lot to notice here, but don't worry. You'll see this structure throughout this page and have lot's of time to get used to it. On line 1, we define a classed called Dog. By convention, capitalized names refer to classes in Python. There are no parenthesis in the class deinition because we're creating this class from scratch. On line 2, we write a docstring describing what this class does.

The __init__() Method

A function that's part of a class is a method. Everything you learned about functions applies to methods as well; the only practical difference for now is the way we'll call methods. The __init__() method on line 4 is a special method that Python runs automatically whenever we create a new instance based on the Dog class. This method has two leading underscores and two trailing underscores, a convention that helps prevent Python's default method names from conflicting with your method names. Make sure to use two underscores on each side of __init__(). If you use just one on each side, the method won't be called automatically when you use your class, which can result in errors that are difficult to identify.

We define the __init__() method to have three parameters: self, name, and age. The self parameter is required in the method definition, and it must come first before the other parameters. It must be included in the definition because when Python cals this method later (to create an instance of Dog), the method call will automatically pass the self argument. Every method call associated with an instance automatically passes self, which is a reference to the instance itself; it gives the individual instance access to the attributes and methods in the class. When we make an instance of Dog, Python will call the __init__() method from the Dog class. We'll pass Dog() a name and an age as arguments; self is passed automatically, so we don't need to pass it. Whenever we want to make an instance from the Dog class, we'll provide values for only the last two parameters, name and age.

The two variables defined on line 6/7 each have the prefix self. Any varibale prefixed with self is available to every method in the class, and we'll also be able to access these variables through any instance created from the class. The line self.name = name takes the value associated with the parameter name and assigns it to the variable name, which is then attached to the instance being created. The same process happens with self.age = age. Variables that are accessible through instances like this are called attributes.

The Dog class has two other methods defined: sit() and roll_over() (line 9 & 13). Because these methods don't need additional information to run, we just define them to have one parameter, self. The instances we create later will have access to these methods. In other words, they'll be able to sit and roll over. For now, sit() and roll_over() don't do much. They simply print a message saying the dog is sitting or rolling over. But the concept can be extended to realistic situations: if this class were part of an actual computer game, these messages would contain code to make an animated dog sit and roll over. If this class was written to control a robot, these methods would direct movements that cause a robotic doc to sit and roll over.

Making an Instance from a Class

Think of a class as a set of instructions for how to make an instance. The class Dog is a set of instructions that tells Python how to make individual instances representing specific dogs.

Let's make an instance representing a specific dog:

class Dog:
    """A simple attempt to model a dog."""

    def __init__(self, name, age):
        """Initialized name and age attributes."""
        self.name = name
        self.age = age

    def sit(self):
        """Simulate a dog sitting in response to a command."""
        print(f"{self.name} is now sitting.")

    def roll_over(self):
        """Simulate rolling over in response to a command."""
        print(f"{self.name} rolled over!")

my_dog = Dog('Willie', 6)

print(f"My dog's name is {my_dog.name}.")
print(f"My dog is {my_dog.age} years old.")

The Dog class we're using here is the same from the previous example. On line 17 we tell Python to create a dog whose name is 'Willie' and whose age is 6. When Python reads this line, it calls the __init__() method in Dog with the arguments 'Willie' and 6. The __init__() method creates an instance representing this particular dog and sets the name and age attributes using the values we provided. Python then returns an instance representing this dog. We assign that instance to the variable my_dog. The naming convention is helpful here: we can usually assume that a capitalized name like Dog refers to a class, and a lowercase name like my_dog refers to a single instance created from a class.

Accessing Attributes

To acces the attributes of an instance, you use dot notation. On line 19, we access the value of my_dog's name by writing:

my_dog.name

Dot notaion is used often in Python. This syntax demonstrates how Python finds an attribute's value. Here Python looks at the instance my_dog and then finds the attribute name associated with my_dog. This is the same attribute referred to as self.name in the class Dog. On line 20 we use the same approach to work with the attribute age.

The output is a summary of what we know about my_dog:

My dog's name is Willie.
My dog is 6 years old.

Calling Methods

After we create an instance from the class Dog, we can use dot notation to call any method defined in Dog. Let's make our dog sit and roll over:

class Dog:
    """A simple attempt to model a dog."""

    def __init__(self, name, age):
        """Initialized name and age attributes."""
        self.name = name
        self.age = age

    def sit(self):
        """Simulate a dog sitting in response to a command."""
        print(f"{self.name} is now sitting.")

    def roll_over(self):
        """Simulate rolling over in response to a command."""
        print(f"{self.name} rolled over!")

my_dog = Dog('Willie', 6)
my_dog.sit()
my_dog.roll_over()

To call a method, give the name of the instance (in this case, my_dog) and the method you want to call, separated by a dot. When Python reads my_dog.sit(), it looks for the method sit() in the class Dog and runs that code. Python interprets the line my_dog.roll_over() in the same way.

Now Willie does what we tell him to:

Willie is now sitting.
Willie rolled over!

This syntax is quite useful. When attributes and methods have been given appropriately descriptive names like name, age, sit(), and roll_over(), we can easily infer what a block of code, even one we've never seen before, is supposed to do.

Creating Multiple Instances

You can create as many instances from a class as you need. Let's create a second dog called your_dog:

class Dog:
    """A simple attempt to model a dog."""

    def __init__(self, name, age):
        """Initialized name and age attributes."""
        self.name = name
        self.age = age

    def sit(self):
        """Simulate a dog sitting in response to a command."""
        print(f"{self.name} is now sitting.")

    def roll_over(self):
        """Simulate rolling over in response to a command."""
        print(f"{self.name} rolled over!")

my_dog = Dog('Willie', 6)
your_dog = Dog('Lucy', 3)

print(f"My dog's name is {my_dog.name}.")
print(f"My dog is {my_dog.age} years old.")
my_dog.sit()

print(f"\nYour dog's name is {your_dog.name}.")
print(f"Your dog is {your_dog.age} years old.")
your_dog.sit()

In this example we create a dog named Willie and a dog named Lucy. Each dog is a separate instance with its own set of attributes, capable of the same set of actions:

My dog's name is Willie.
My dog is 6 years old.
Willie is now sitting.

Your dog's name is Lucy.
Your dog is 3 years old.
Lucy is now sitting.

Even if We used the same name and age for the second dog, Python would still create a separate instance from the Dog class. You can make as many instances from one class as you need, as long as you give each instance a unique variable name or it occupies a unique spot in a list or dictionary.

Working with Classes and Instances

You can use classes to represent many real-word situations. Once you write a class, you'll spend most of your time working with instances created from that class. One of the first tasks you'll want to do is modify the attributes associated with a particular instance. You can modify the attributes of an instance directly or write methods that update attributes in specific ways.

The Car Class

Let's write a new class representing a car. Our class will store information about the kind of car we're working with, and it will have a method that summarizes this information:

class Car:
    """A simple attempt to represent a car."""

    def __init__(self, make, model, year):
        """Intiialize attributes to describe a car."""
        self.make = make
        self.model = model
        self.year = year

    def get_descriptive_name(self):
        """Return a neatly formatted descriptive name."""
        long_name = f"{self.year} {self.make} {self.model}"
        return long_name.title()

my_new_car = Car('audi', 'a4', 2020)
print(my_new_car.get_descriptive_name())

On line 4 in the Car class, we define the __init__() method with the self parameter first, just like we did before with our Dog class. We also give in three other parameters: make, model, and year. The __init__() method takes in these parameters and assigns them to the attributes that will be associated with instances made from this class. When we make a new Car instance, we'll need to specify a make, model, and year for our instance.

On line 10 we define a method called get_descriptive_name() that puts a car's year, make, and model into one string neatly describing the car. This will spare us from having to print each attribute's value individually. To work with the attribute values in this method, we use self.make, self.model and self.year. On line 15 we make an instance from the Car class and assign it to the variable my_new_car. Then we call get_descriptive_name() to show what kind of car we have:

2020 Audi A4

To make the class more interesting, let's add an attribute that changes over time. We'll add an attribute that stores the car's overall mileage.

Setting a Default Value for an Attribute

When an instance is created, attributes can be defined without being passed in as parameters. These attributes can be defined in the __init__() method, where they are assigned a default value.

Let's add an attribute called odometer_reading that always starts with a value of 0. We'll also add a method read_odometer() that helps us read each car's odometer:

class Car:
    """A simple attempt to represent a car."""

    def __init__(self, make, model, year):
        """Intiialize attributes to describe a car."""
        self.make = make
        self.model = model
        self.year = year
        self.odometer_reading = 0

    def get_descriptive_name(self):
        """Return a neatly formatted descriptive name."""
        long_name = f"{self.year} {self.make} {self.model}"
        return long_name.title()

    def read_odometer(self):
        """Print a statement showing the car's mileage."""
        print(f"This car has {self.odometer_reading} miles on it.")

my_new_car = Car('audi', 'a4', 2020)
print(my_new_car.get_descriptive_name())
my_new_car.read_odometer()

This time when Python calls the __init__() method to create a new instance, it stores the make, model, and year values as attributes like it did in the previous example. Then Python creates a new attribute called odometer_reading and sets its initial value to 0 (line 9). We also have a new method called read_odometer() on line 16 that makes it easy to read a car's mileage.

Our car starts with a mileage of 0:

2020 Audi A4
This car has 0 miles on it.

Not many cars are sold with exactly 0 miles on the odometer, so we need a way to change the value of this attribute.

Modifying Attribute Values

You can change an attribute's value in three ways:

• Change the value directly through an instance

• Set the value through a method

• Increment the value through a method

Modifying an Attribute's Value Directly

The simplest way to modify the value of an attribute is to access the attribute directly through an instance. Here we set the odometer reading to 23 directly:

class Car:
    --snip--

my_new_car = Car('audi', 'a4', 2020)
print(my_new_car.get_descriptive_name())

my_new_car.odometer_reading = 23
my_new_car.read_odometer()

On line 7 we use dot notation to access the car's odometer_reading attribute and set its value directly. This line tells Python to take the instance my_new_car, find the attribute odomerter_reading associated with it, and set the value of that attribute to 23:

2020 Audi A4
This car has 23 miles on it.

Sometimes you'll want to access attributes directly like this, but other times you'll want to write a method that updates the value for you.

Modifying an Attribute's Value Through a Method

It can be helpful to have methods that update certain attributes for you. Instead of accessing the attribute directly, you pass the new value to a method that handles the updating internally.

Here's an example showing a method called update_odometer():

class Car:
    --snip--

    def update_odometer(self, milage):
        """Set the odometer reading to a given value."""
        self.odometer_reading = milage

my_new_car = Car('audi', 'a4', 2020)
print(my_new_car.get_descriptive_name())

my_new_car.update_odometer(23)
my_new_car.read_odometer()

The only modification to Car is the addition of update_odometer() on line 4. This method takes in a mileage value and assigns it to self.odometer_reading. On line 11 we call update_odometer() and give it 23 as an argument (corresponding to the mileage parameter in the method definition). It sets the odometer reading to 23, and read_odometer() prints the reading:

2020 Audi A4
This car has 23 miles on it.

We can extend the method update_odometer() to do additional work every time the odometer reading is modified. Let's add a little logic to make sure no one tries to roll back the odometer reading:

class Car:
    --snip--

    def update_odometer(self, mileage):
        """
        Set the odometer reading to a given value.
        Reject the change if it atempts to roll the odometer back.
        """
        if mileage >= self.odometer_reading:
            self.odometer_reading = mileage
        else:
            print("You can't roll back an odometer!")

Now update_odometer() checks that the new reading makes sense before modifying the attribute. If the new mileage, mileage, is greater than or equal to the existing mileage, self.odometer_reading, you can update the odometer reading to the new mileage (line 9). If the new mileage is less than the existing mileage, you'll get a warning that you can't roll back an odometer (line 12).

Incrementing an Attribute's Value Through a Method

Sometimes you'll want to increment an attribute's value by a certain amount rather than set an entirely new value. Say we buy a used car and put 100 miles on it between the time we buy it and the time we register it. Here's a method that allows us to pass this incremental amount and add that value to the odometer reading:

class Car:
    --snip--

    def update_odometer(self, mileage):
        --snip--

    def increment_odometer(self, miles):
        """Add the given amount to the odometer reading."""
        self.odometer_reading += miles

my_used_car = Car('subaru', 'outback', 2016)
print(my_used_car.get_descriptive_name())

my_used_car.update_odometer(23_500)
my_used_car.read_odometer()

my_used_car.update_odometer(100)
my_used_car.read_odometer()

This new method increment_odometer() at line 7 takes in a number of miles and adds this value to self.odometer_reading. On line 11 we create a used car, my_used_car. We set its odomoer to 23,500 by calling update_odometer() and passing it 23_500 on line 14. On line 16 we call increment_odometer() and pass it 100 to add the 100 miles that we drove between buying the car and registering it:

2015 Subaru Outback
This car has 23500 miles on it.
This car has 23600 miles on it.

You can easily modify this method to reject negative increments so no one uses this function to roll back an odometer.

Inheritance

You don't always have to start from scratch when writing a class. If the class you're writing is a specialized version of another class you wrote, you can use inheritance. When one class inherits from another, it takes on the attributes and methods of the first class. The original class is called the parent class, and the new class is the child class. The child class can inherit any or all of the attributes and methods of its parent class, but it's also free to define new attributes and methods of its own.

The __init__() Method for a Child Class

When you're writing a new class based on an existing class, you'll often want to call the __init__() method from the parent class. This will initialize any attributes that were defined in the parent __init__() method and make them available in the child class.

As an example, let's model an electric car. An electric car is just a specific kind of car, so we can base our new ElectricCar class on the Car class we wrote earlier. Then we'll only have to write code for the attributes and behavior specific to electric cars.

Let's start by making a simple version of the ElectricCar class, which does everythin the Car class does:

class Car:
    """A simple attempt to represent a car."""
    def __init__(self, make, model, year):
        self.make = make
        self.model = model
        self.year = year
        self.odometer_reading = 0

    def get_descriptive_name(self):
        long_name = f"{self.year} {self.make} {self.model}" 
        return long_name.title()

    def read_odometer(self):
        print(f"This car has {self.odometer_reading} miles on it.")

    def update_odometer(self, mileage):
        if mileage >= self.odometer_reading:
            self.odometer_reading = mileage
        else:
            print("You can't roll back an odometer!")

    def increment_odometer(self, miles):
        self.odometer_reading += miles

class ElectricCar(Car):
    """Represent aspects of a car, specific to electric vehicles."""

    def __init__(self, make, model, year):
        """Initialize attributes of the parent class."""
        super().__init__(make, model, year)

my_tesla = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model s', 2019)
print(my_tesla.get_descriptive_name())

On line 1 we start with Car. When you create a child class, the parent class must be part of the current file and must appear before the child class in the file. On line 25 we define the child class, ElectricCar. The name of the parent class must be included in the parentheses in the defintion of a child class. The __init__() method on line 28 takes in the information required to make a Car instance.

The super() function on line 30 is a special function that allows you to call a method from the parent class. This line tells Python to call the __init__() method from Car, which gives and ElectricCar instance all the attributes fefined in that method. The name super comes from a convention of calling the parent class a superclass and the child class a subclass.

We test whether inheritence is working properly by trying to create an electric car with the same kind of information we'd provide when making a regular car. On line 32 we make an instance of the ElectricCar class and assign it to my_tesla. This line calls the __init__() method defined in ElectricCar, which in turn tells Python to call the __init__() method defined in the parent class Car. We provide the arguments 'tesla', 'model s', and 2019.

Aside from __init__(), there are no attributes or methods yet that are particular to an electric car. At this point we're just making sure the car has the appropriate Car behaviors:

2019 Tesla Model S

The ElectricCar instance works just like an instance of Car, so now we can begin defining attributes and methods specific to electric cars.

Defining Attributes and Methods for the Child Class

Once you have a child class that inherits from a parent class, you can add any new attributes and methods necessary to differentiate the child class from the parent class.

Let's add an attribute that's specific to electric cars (a battery, for example) and a method to report on this attribute. We'll store the battery size and write a method that print a description of the battery:

class Car:
    ---snip---

class ElectricCar(Car):
    """Represents aspects of a car, specific to electric vehicles."""

    def __init__(self, make, model, year):
        """
        Initialize attributes of the parent class.
        Then initialize attributes specific to an electric car.
        """
        super().__init__(make, model, year)
        self.battery_size = 75

    def describe_battery(self):
        """Print a statement describing the battery size."""
        print(f"This car has a {self.battery_size}-kWh battery.")

my_tesla = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model s', 2019)
print(my_tesla.get_descriptive_name())
my_tesla.describe_battery()

On line 13 we add a new attribute self.battery_size and set its initial value to 75. This attribute will be associated with all instances created from the ElectricCar class but won't be associated with any instances of Car. We also add a method called describe_battery() that prints information about the battery on line 15. When we call this method, we get a description that is clearly specific to an electric car:

2019 Tesla Model S
This car has a 75-kWh battery.

There's no limit to how much you can specialize the ElectricCar class. You can add as many attributes and methods as you need to model an electric car to whatever degree of accuracy you need. An attribute or method that could belong to any car, rather than one that's specific to an electric car, should be added to the Car class instead of the ElectricCar class. Then anyone who uses the Car class will have that functionality available as well, and the ElectricCar class wil only contain code for the information and behavior specific to electric vehicles.

Overriding Methods from the Parent Class

You can override any method from the parent class that doesn't fit what you're trying to model with the child class. To do this, you define a method in the child class with the same name as the method you want to override in the parent class. Python will disregard the parent class method and only pay attention to the method you define in the child class.

Say the class Car had a method called fill_gas_tank(). This method is meaningless for an all-electric vehicle, so you might want to override this method. Here is one way to do that:

class ElectricCar(Car):
    --snip--

    def fill_gas_tank(self):
        """Electric cars don't have gas tanks."""
        print("This car doesn't need a gas tank!")

Now if someone tries to call fill_gas_tank() with an electric car, Python will ignore the method fill_gas_tank() in Car and run this code instead. When you use inheritence, you can make your child classes retain what you need and override anything you don't need from the parent class.

Instances as Attributes

When modeling something from the real world in code, you may find that you're adding more and more detail to a class. You'll find that you have a growing list of attributes and methods and that your files are becoming lengthy. In these situations, you might recognize that part of one class can be written as a separate class. You can break your large class into smaller classes that work together.

For example, if we continue adding detail to the ElectricCar class, we might notice that we're adding many attributes and methods specific to the car's battery. When we see this happening, we can stop and move those attributes and methods to a separate class called Battery. Then we can use a Battery instance as an attribute in the ElectricCar class:

class Car:
    --snip--

class Battery:
    """A simple attempt to model a battery for an electric car."""

    def __init__(self, battery_size=75):
        """Initialize the battery's attributes."""
        self.battery_size = battery_size

    def describe_battery(self):
        "Print a statement describing the battery size."""
        print(f"This car has a {self.battery_size}-kWh battery.")

class ElectricCar(Car):
    "represents aspects of a car, specific to electric vehicles."""

    def __init__(self, make, model, year):
        """
        Initialize attributes of the parent class.
        Then initialize attributes specific to an electric car.
        """
        super().__init__(make, model, year)
        self.battery = Battery()

my_tesla = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model s', 2019)

print(my_tesla.get_descriptive_name())
my_tesla.battery.describe_battery()

On line 4 we define a new class called class Battery that doesn't inherit from any other class. The __init__() method on line 7 has one parameter battery_size, in addition to self. This is an optional parameter that sets the battery's size to 75 if no value is provided. The method describe_battery() has been moved to this class as well (line 11).

In the ElectricCar class, we now add an attribute called self.battery (line 24). This line tells Python to create a new instance of Battery (with a default size of 75 because we're not specifying a value) and assign that instance to the attribute self.battery. This will happen every time the __init__() method is called; and ElectricCar instance will now have a Battery instance created automatically.

We create an electric car and assign it to the variable my_tesla. When we want to describe the battery, we need to work through the car's battery attribute:

my_tesla.batter.describe_battery()

This line tells Python to look at the instance of my_tesla, find its battery attribute, and call the method describe_battery() that's associated with the Battery instance stored in the attribute.

The output is identical to what we saw previously:

class Car:
    --snip--

class Battery:
    --snip--

    def get_range(self):
        """Print a statement about the range this battery provides."""
        if self.battery_size == 75:
            range = 260
        elif self.battery_size == 100:
            range = 315

class ElectricCar(Car):
    --snip--

my_tesla = ElectricCar('tesla', 'model s', 2019)

print(my_tesla.get_descriptive_name())
my_tesla.battery.describe_battery()
my_tesla.battery.get_range()

The new method get_range() on line 7, performs some simple analysis. If the battery's capacity is 75 kWh, get_range() sets the range to 260 miles, and if the capacity is 100 kWh, it sets the range to 315 miles. It then reports this value. When we want to use this method, we again have to call it through the car's battery attribute on line 21.

The output tells us the range of the car based on its battery size:

2019 Tesla Model S
This car has a 75-kWh battery.
This car can go about 260 mile son a full charge.

Modeling Real-World Objects