Object Oriented Java

Introduction to Classes

All programs require one or more classes that act as a model for the world.

For example, a program to track student test scores might have Student, Course, and Grade classes. Our real-world concerns, students and their grades, are inside the program as classes.

We represent each student as an instance, or object, of the Student class. This is object-oriented programming (OOP) because programs are built around objects and their interactions. An object contains a state and behavior.

Classes are a blueprint for objects. Blueprints detail the general structure. For example, all students have an ID, all courses can enroll a student, etc.

An instance is the thing itself. This student has an ID of 42, this course enrolled that student, etc.

Let's review with another example, a savings account at a bank.

What should a savings account know?

• The balance of money available.

What should a savings account do?

• Deposit money.

• Withdraw money.

Imagine that two people have accounts that are instances of the SavingsAccount class. They share behavior (the ability to deposit/withdraw) but have an individual state (their balances), and even with the same balance these accounts are separate entities.

Let's put that same concept into a store class:

public class Store {
  // instance fields
  String productType;
  int inventoryCount;
  double inventoryPrice;

  // constructor method
  public Store(String product, int count, double price) {
    productType = product;
    inventoryCount = count;
    inventoryPrice = price;
  }

  // main method
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Store lemonadeStand = new Store("lemonade", 42, .99);
    Store cookieShop = new Store("cookies", 12, 3.75);

    System.out.println("Our first shop sells " + lemonadeStand.productType + " at " + lemonadeStand.inventoryPrice + " per unit.");

    System.out.println("Our second shop has " + cookieShop.inventoryCount + " units remaining.");
  }
}

Running the above code should give the following output:

Our first shop sells lemonade at 0.99 per unit.
Our second shop has 12 units remaining.

Class Syntax

The fundamental concept of object-oriented programming is the class. A class is the set of instructions that describe how an instance can behave and what information it contains. Java has pre-defined classes such as System, which we have used previously to log text to our screen, but we also need to write our own classes for the custom needs of a program.

Here is a definition of a Java class:

public class Car {
// scope of Car class starts after curly brace

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    // scope of main() starts after curly brace

    // program tasks

  }
  // scope of main() ends after curly brace

}
// scope of Car class ends after curly brace

This example defines a class named Car. public is an access level modifier that allows other classes to interact with this class. For now, all classes will be public.

This class has a main() method, which lists the tasks performed by the program. main() runs when we execute the compiled Car.class file.

Constructors

In order to create an object (an instance of a class), we need a constructor method. The constructor is defined within the class.

Let's take a look at the Car class with a constructor. The constructor, Car(), shares the same name as the class:

public class Car {
  // Constructor method
  public Car() {
    // instructions for creating a Car instance
  }

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    // body of main method
  }
}

To create an instance, we need to call or invoke the constructor within main(). The following example assigns a Car instance to the variable ferrari:

public class Car {

  public Car() {
    // instructions for creating a Car instance
  }

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    // Invoke the constructor
    Car ferrari = new Car();
  }
}

Instance Fields

In our first example, we ended with printing an instance of Store, which looked something like Store@6bc7c054. The first part, Store, refers to the class, and the second part, @6bc7c054 refers to the instance's location in the computer's memory.

We don't care about memory location, but our instances have no other characteristics! When an object is created, the constructor sets the initial state of the obkect. The state is made up of associated data that represents the characteristics of an object.

We'll add data to an object by introducing instance variables, or instance fields.

We want Car instances of different colors, so we declare a String color instance field. Often times, instance variables are described as a "has-a" relationship with the object. For example, a Car "has-a" color. Another way to think of that is that instance variables are nouns and adjectives associated with an object. What qualities other than color might a car have?

public class Car {
  /*
  declare fields inside the class
  by specifying the type and name
  */
  String color;

  public Car() {
    /*
    instance fields available in
    scope of constructor method
    */
  }

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    // body of main method
  }
}

The declaration is within the class and the instance variable will be available for assignment inside the constructor.

Fields are a type of state each instance will possess. One instance may have "red" as its color, another "blue", etc. It's the job of the constructor to give these instance fields initial value.

Contructor Parameters

To create objects with dynamic, individual states, we'll use a combination of the constructor method and instance fields.

In order to assign a value to an instance variable, we need to alter our constructor method to include parameters so that it can access the data we want to assign to an instance. We've already seen a parameter in the main() method: String[] args, but this is the first time we're using the parameter value within a method body.

The Car constructor now has a parameter: String carColor::

public class Car {
  String color;
  //constructor method with a parameter
  public Car(String carColor) {
    // parameter value assigned to the field
    color = carColor;
  }
  public static void main(String[] args){
    // program tasks
  }
}

When a String value gets passed into Car, it is assigned to the parameter carColor. Then, inside the constructor, carColor will be assigned as the value to the instance variable color.

Our method also has a signature which defines the name and parameters of the method. In the above example, the signature is Car(String carColor).

Assigning Values to Instance Fields

Now that the constructor has a parameter, we must pass values into the method call. These values are referred to as arguments; once they are passed in, they will be used to give the instance fields intial value.

Here we create an instance, ferrari, in the main() method with "red" as its color field:

public class Car {
  String color;

  public Car(String carColor){
    // assign parameter value to instance field
    color = carColor;
  }

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    // parameter value supplied when calling the constructor
    Car ferrari = new Car("red");
  }
}

We pass the String value "red" to our constructor method call: new Car("red");.

The type of value given to the invocation must match the type declared by the parameter.

Inside the constructor, the parameter carColor refers to the value passed in during the invocation "red". This value is assigned to the instance field color.

color has already been declared, so we don't specify the type during assignment.

The object, ferrari, holds the state of color as an instance field referencing the value "red".

We access the value of this field with the dot operator (.):

/*
accessing a field:
objectName.fieldName
*/

ferrari.color;
// "red"

Using Multiple Fields

Objects are not limited to a single instance field. We can declare as many fields as are necessary for the requirements of our program.

Let's change Car instances so they have multiple fields.

We'll add a boolean isRunning, that indicates if the car engine is on and an int velocity, that indicates the speed at which the car is travelling.

public class Car {
  String color;
  boolean isRunning;
  int velocity;

  public Car(String carColor, boolean carRunning, int milesPerHour) {
    color = carColor;
    isRunning = carRunning;
    velocity = milesPerHour;
  }

  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Car ferrari = new Car("red", true, 27);
    Car renault = new Car("blue", false, 70);

    System.out.println(renault.isRunning);
    // will print false
    System.out.println(ferrari.velocity);
    // will print 27
  }
}

The constructor now has multiple parameters to receive values for the new fields. We still specify the type as well as the name for each parameter.

Ordering matters! We must pass values into the constructor invocation in the same order that they're listed in the parameters.

// values match types, no error
Car honda = new Car("green", false, 0);

// values do not match types, error!
Car junker = new Car(true, 42, "brown");

Classes Review

Java is an object-orriented programming language where every program has at least one class. Programs are often built from many classes and objects, which are the instances of a class.

Classes define the state and behavior of their instances. Behavior comes from methods defined in the class. State comes from instance fields declared inside the class.

Classes are modeled on the real-world things we want to represent in our program. Later we will explore how a program can be made from multiple classes. For now, our programs are a single class.

public class Dog {
  // instance field
  String breed;
  //constructor method
  public Dog(String dogBreed) {
    /*
    value of parameter dogBreed assigned to instance field breed
    */
    breed = dogBreed;
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    /*
    create instance:
    use 'new' operator and invoke constructor
    */
    Dog dani = new Dog("border collie");
    /*
    fields are accessed using:
    the instance name, '.' operator, and the field name
    */
    dani.breed;
    // "border collie"
  }
}

Introduction to Methods

A method is a block of code which only runs when it is called. You can pass data, known as parameters into a method. Methods are used to perform certain actions, and they are also known as functions.

Methods are repeatable, modular blocks of code, used to accomplish specific tasks. We have the ability to define our own methods that will take input, do something with it, and return the kind of output we want.

Method decomposition is a way we can use methods to break fown a large problem into smaller, more manageable problems.

Methods are very reusable. Imagine we wrote a sandwich-making program that used 20 lines of code to make a single sandwich. Our program would become very long very quickly if we were making multiple sandwiches. By creating a makeSandwich() method, we can make a sandwich anytime simply by calling it.

We will be using the following code to build a method later on:

public class SavingsAccount {

  int balance;

  public SavingsAccount(int initialBalance){
    balance = initialBalance;
  }

  public static void main(String[] args){
    SavingsAccount savings = new SavingsAccount(2000);

    //Check balance:
    System.out.println("Hello!");
    System.out.println("Your balance is "+savings.balance);

    //Withdrawing:
    int afterWithdraw = savings.balance - 300;
    savings.balance = afterWithdraw;
    System.out.println("You just withdrew "+300);

    //Check balance:
    System.out.println("Hello!");
    System.out.println("Your balance is "+savings.balance);

    //Deposit:
    int afterDeposit = savings.balance + 600;
    savings.balance = afterDeposit;
    System.out.println("You just deposited "+600);

    //Check balance:
    System.out.println("Hello!");
    System.out.println("Your balance is "+savings.balance);

    //Deposit:
    int afterDeposit2 = savings.balance + 600;
    savings.balance = afterDeposit2;
    System.out.println("You just deposited "+600);

    //Check balance:
    System.out.println("Hello!");
    System.out.println("Your balance is "+savings.balance);

  }
}

Defining Methods

If we were to define a checkBalance() method for the Savings Account example above, it would look like the following:

public void checkBalance(){
  System.out.println("Hello!");
  System.out.println("Your balance is " + balance);
}

The first line, public void checkBalance(), is the method declaration. It gives the program some information about the method:

• public means that other classes can access this method.

• The void keyword means that there is no specific output from the method. We will see methods that are not void later in these notes, but for now, all of our methods will be void.

• checkBalance() is the name of the method.

Every method has its own unique method signature which is comprised of the method's name and its parameter type. In this example, the method signature checkBalance().

The two print statements are inside the body of the method, which is defined by the curly braces: { and }.

Anything we can do in our main() method, we can do in other methods! All of the java tools we have learned, like the math and comparison operators, can be used to make interesting and useful methods.

Calling Methods

When we add a non-static method to a class, it becomes available to use on an object of that class. In order to have our methods get executed, we must call the method on the object we created.

Let's add a non-static startEngine() method to our Car class from earlier notes. Inside the main() method, we'll call startEngine() on the myFastCar object:

class Car {

  String color;

  public Car(String carColor) {
    color = carColor;
  }

  public void startEngine() {
    System.out.println("Starting the car!");
    System.out.println("Vroom!");
  }

  public static void main(String[] args){
    Car myFastCar = new Car("red");
    // Call a method on an object
    myFastCar.startEngine();
    System.out.println("That was one fast car!");
  }
}

Let's take a closer look at the method call:

myFastCar.startEngine();

First, we reference our object myFastCar. Then, we use the dot operator (.) to call the method startEngine(). Noter that we must include parentheses () after our method name in order to call it.

If we run the above program, we get the following output:

Starting the car!
Vroom!
That was one fast car!

Code generally runs in a top-down order where code execution starts at the top of a program and ends at the bottom; however, methods are ignored by the compiler unless they are being called.

When a method is called, the compiler executes every statement contained within the method. Once all method instructions are executed, the top-down order of execution continues. This is why Starting the car! and Vroom! are outputted before That was one fast car!.

Scope

A method is a task that an object of a class performs.

We mark the domain of this task using curly braces { and }. Everything inside the curly braces is part of the task. This domain is called the scope of a method. We can't access variables that are declared inside a method in code that is outside the scope of that method.

Looking at the Car class again:

class Car {
  String color;
  int milesDriven;

  public Car(String carColor) {
    color = carColor;
    milesDriven = 0;
  }

  public void drive() {
    String message = "Miles driven: " + milesDriven;
    System.out.println(message);
  }

  public static void main(String[] args){
    Car myFastCar = new Car("Red");
    myFastCar.drive();
  }
}

The variable message, which is declared and initialized inside of drive, cannot be used inside of main()! It only exists within the scope of the drive() method.

However, milesDriven, which is declared at the top of the class, can be used inside all methods in the class, since it is in the scope of the whole class.

Adding Parameters

We saw how a method's scope prevents us from using variables declared in one method in another method. What if we had some information in one method that we needed to pass into another method?

Similar to how we added parameters to constructors, we can customize all other methods to accept parameters. For example, in the following code, we create a startRadio() method that accepts a Double parameter, stationNum, and a String parameter called stationName:

class Car {
  String color;

  public Car(String carColor){
    color = carColor;
  }

  public void startRadio(double stationNum, String stationName) {
    System.out.println("Turning on the radio to " + stationNum + ", " + stationName + "!");
    System.out.println("Enjoy!");
  }

  public static void main(String[] args){
    Car myCar = new Car("red");
    myCar.startRadio(103.7, "Meditation Station");
  }
}

Adding parameter values impacts our method's signature. Like constructor signatures, the method signature includes the method name as well as the parameter types of the method. The signature of the above method is startRadio(double, String).

In the main() method, we call the startRadio() method on the myCar object and probide a double argument of 103.7 and String argument of Meditation Station, resulting in the following output:

Turning on the radio to 103.7, Meditation Station!
Enjoy!

Note that when we call on a method with multiple parameters, the arguments given in the call must be placed in the same order as the parameters appear in the signature. If the argument types do not match the parameter types, we'll receive an error.

Reassigning Instance Fields

Earlier, we thought about a Savings Account as a type of object wer could represent in Java.

Two of the methods we need are depositing and withdrawing:

public SavingsAccount{
  double balance;
  public SavingsAccount(double startingBalance){
    balance = startingBalance;
  }

  public void deposit(double amountToDeposit){
    // Add amountToDeposit to the balance
  }

  public void withdraw(double amountToWithdraw){
    // Subtract amountToWithdraw from the balance
  }

  public static void main(String[] args){

  }
}

These methods would change the valuie of the variable balance. We can reassign balance to be a new value by using our assignment operator, =, again.

public void deposit(double amountToDeposit){
  double updatedBalance = balance + amountToDeposit;
  balance = updatedBalance;
}

nNow, when we call deposit(), it should change the value of the instance field balance:

public static void main(String[] args){
  SavingsAccount myAccount = new SavingsAccount(2000);
  System.out.println(myAccount.balance);
  myAccount.deposit(100);
  System.out.println(myAccount.balance);
}

The code first prints 2000, the initial value of myAccount.balance, and then prints 2100, which is the value of myAccount.balance after the deposit() method has run.

Change instance fields is how we change the state of an object and make our objects more flexible and realistic.

Returns

Remeber, variables only exist in the scope that they were declared in. We can use a value outside of the method it was created in if we return it from the method.

We return a value by using the keyword return:

public int numberOfTires() {
  int tires = 4;
  // return statement
  return tires;
}

This method, called numberOfTires(), returns 4. Once the return statement is executed, the compiler exits the function. Any code that exists after the return statement in a function is ignored.

In past exercises, when creating new methods, we use the keyword void. Here, we are replacing void with int, to signify that the return type is an int.

The void keyword (which means "completely empty") indicates that no value is returned after calling that method.

A non-void method, like numberOfTires() returns a value when it is called. We can use datatype keywords (such as int, char, etc.) to specify the type of value the method should return. The return value's type must match the return type of the method. If the return expression is compatible with the return type, a copy of that value gets returned in a process known as return by value.

Unlike void mehods, non-void methods can be used as either a variable value or as part of an expression like so:

public static void main(String[] args){
  Car myCar = new Car("Red");
  int numTires = myCar.numberOfTires();
}

Within main(), we called the numberOfTires() method on myCar. Since the method returns an int value of 4, we store the value in an integer value called numTires. If we printed numTires, we would see 4.

The toString() method

When we print out Objects, we often see a String that is not very helpful in determining what the object represents. In earlier notes, we saw that printing our Store object would output something like:

Store@6bc7c123

Where Store is the name of the object and @6bc7c123 is its position in memory.

This doesn't tell us anything about what the Store sells, the price, or the other instance fields we've defined. We can add a method to our classes that makes this printout more descriptive.

When we define a toString() method for a class, we can return a String that will print when we print the object:

class Car{

  String color;

  public Car(String carColor){
    color = carColor;
  }

  public static void main(String[] args){
    Car myCar = new Car("red");
    System.out.println(myCar);
  }

  public String toString(){
    return "This is a " + color + " car!";
  }
}

When this runs the command System.out.println(myCar) will print This is a red car!, which tells us about the Object myCar.

Methods Review

Methods are a powerful way to abstract tasks away and make them repeatable. They allow us to define behavior for classes, so that the Objects we create can do the things we expect them to. Let's review everything we have learned about methods so far:

• Defining a method: Methods have a method signature that declares their return type, name, and parameters.

• Calling a method: Methods are invoked with a . and ().

• Parameters: Inputs to the method and their types are declared in parentheses in the method signature.

• Changing Instance Fields: Methods can be used to change the value of an instance field.

• Scope: Variables only exist within the domain that they are created in.

• Return: The type of the variables that are output are declared in the method signature.

Basic Calculator

public class Calculator{

  public Calculator(){

  }

  public int add(int a, int b){
    return a + b;
  }

  public int subtract(int a, int b){
    return a - b;
  }

  public int multiply(int a, int b){
    return a * b;
  }

  public int divide(int a, int b){
    return a / b;
  }

  public int modulo(int a, int b){
    return a % b;
  }

  public static void main(String[] args){
    Calculator myCalculator = new Calculator();
    System.out.println(myCalculator.add(5, 7));
    System.out.println(myCalculator.subtract(45, 11));

  }
}